In the Dehkhoda Dictionary and the Moein Persian Dictionary, the word "asbad" (or "as-bad") has not been specifically defined as a standalone entry. The word "as" in the dictionary is defined as follows: "Two round, flat stones placed one upon the other, with an iron axle or the like passing through the center of the upper stone from the center of the lower; the upper stone turns by the force of a human hand, a beast, wind, water, steam, or electricity, grinding grain and the like into flour. That which turns by hand is called 'dast-as' and 'as-e dast'; that which turns by water is called 'ab-as' or 'asiab' or 'asia,' and in Arabic 'tahouneh' and 'na'our'; that which turns by wind is called 'bad-as,' 'asiacharkh,' 'as-bad,' and 'rahi al-rih'; and that which turns by beast is called 'khar-as' and 'sotur-as' (al-Sami fi al-Asami). And the mill turned by ox is called 'gav-as,' 'dolab,' and in Arabic 'manjanin,' 'manjanun,' 'arabeh,' and 'daliyeh.'" The word "asia" is also defined as follows: "Asia — a device for grinding and milling grain, gypsum, lime, and the like, or for extracting oil and plant juices; tahouneh, as, asiav. This word applies to all types: wind, water, hand, and beast-driven. 'And they [the people of Sistan] have mills built upon the wind' (Hodoud al-Alam)." In the Moein Dictionary, the word "as" is defined as: "Two round, flat stones placed one upon the other, with an iron axle or the like passing through the center of the lower stone; the upper stone turns by the force of a human hand, a beast, wind, water, electricity, or steam, grinding grain and the like into flour." In the same dictionary, "asban" means the keeper of the "as" or "miller," and "as-khaneh" means "as-kadeh, sar-asiab, the place of the mill"; "asia" means "asiab" (mill); "asiab" means a mill that turns by the force of water; and "asia-charkh" means "asbad" — that is, a mill that moves by the force of wind. In southern Khorasan, the asbads are called "asia." In the article "Traditional Architectural Measures for Utilizing Environmental Resources," published in Memar magazine issue 29 in January-February 2005, I briefly introduced the asbads, including those of Nashtifan near Khaf and Khargerd in Razavi Khorasan Province, as well as the asbads of the village of Khvansharaf in the Nehbandan district of South Khorasan Province. In this article, I will attempt to introduce them in greater detail. In general, the diverse climatic conditions of Iran have caused the various peoples who have lived in this land to devise measures for utilizing natural resources and coping with variable and mostly unfavorable climatic conditions that are truly remarkable and worthy of reflection. Qanats (kariz), various types of reservoirs and cisterns for agriculture, villages, and cities, as well as roadside and desert cisterns, ice houses (yakhchal or yakhdan), pigeon towers, various single to four-sided wind catchers, shabestans and shavadans, water rationing wells, and water, animal, and wind mills are among these. The factors shaping climatic conditions include the angle of solar radiation, geographic latitude or distance from the equator, the intensity and direction of wind currents, the availability or scarcity of water, and elevation above sea level. Scholars hold varying views on climatic classification; according to the theory of the Austrian scientist Koppen, Iran — situated between latitudes 26
and 42 degrees north — falls within the warm zone, and according to the climatic divisions of Dr. Hasan Ganji, Iran has four climates: temperate and humid (the southern coasts of the Caspian Sea), cold and snowy (the mountainous regions of western Iran), hot and dry (the central plateau, comprising desert and semi-desert areas), and hot and humid (the southern coasts of Iran). The subject of this article concerns the hot and dry region. Although many areas of Iran, including Rudbar and Manjil, are windy, no asbads have been reported in those areas, and only the eastern region of Iran is distinctive in this regard. The famous 120-day winds of Sistan — beyond Sistan, which does not constitute a large area — affect the entire eastern fringe of Iran and a considerable part of Afghanistan. This wind, which locals also call "bad-e kuh" (mountain wind), is one of the harmful winds
that blows at all hours of the day from early June to late September (Image 2, Iran climate map).
The 120-Day Winds of Sistan. Hossein Sargazi, on his blog, in the article "Ecosystem of Sistan and Baluchestan" in
July 2007, introduced this wind: "The 120-day wind (Lavar): It begins in early May and continues until September and even October, and is famously known as the 120-day wind due to its duration. The maximum wind speed in July reaches up to 100 kilometers per hour, with even higher figures cited in some sources. The average wind speed during summer months is about 26 kilometers per hour, and during winter months it drops to 13 kilometers per hour. Wind currents in Sistan exist in all seasons, with the greatest wind activity occurring in summer (June, July, August, and September), with calm periods gradually increasing from September onward. The predominant wind directions are north and northwest. Regarding the formation of this wind, various but consistent opinions have been expressed. The simplest explanation is the displacement of hot air from the Sistan plain with cold air from northern latitudes, creating a low-pressure system over the Rigestan desert during summer months, which moves upward to balance with the dry air of the high steppes of Central Asia, causing the dry air mass to move from the north and northwest toward the south and southeast — known as the 120-day wind due to its persistence. Mahmoudi, in his study of Iran's major sand deserts, without citing the origin of this wind, states: 'Whatever the origin of these winds, they are intensified by the pressure differential between the northern highlands of Afghanistan and the Dasht-e Na-Omid (Desert of Despair). The maximum speed of this wind in the Sistan region has been cited at 100 and even 120 kilometers per hour. At the Birjand station in the north of the region, the average annual wind speed is 2.8 knots per second, and the strongest winds reach speeds of 40 to 45 knots per hour.' The report of the Provincial Meteorological Administration also states: 'This wind is influenced by the Indian monsoon winds. In northern Afghanistan, a high-pressure system that has lost its moisture through heavy rains, simultaneous with a seasonal low-pressure thermal system forming over the Zabol plain, creates this wind due to the air pressure differential between the mountains of Afghanistan and the Sistan plain. Due to the topography of the Zabol plain — with the Palangan heights to the west and the Babaei heights to the northeast — a natural channel is formed that intensifies the wind speed.' This wind is known in the Zabol region as 'Lavar,' meaning
hot and dry, blowing from the north or northwest direction.
The Origins of the Asbads. Many sources cite Sistan — once also known as the "Granary" of the region — as the birthplace of asbads. According to Wikipedia: Masudi (fourth century AH) in Muruj al-Dhahab, regarding the land of windmills, states: "Sistan is the land of wind and sand, and in that city they say the wind turns mills and draws water from wells, irrigates gardens, and in all the world there is no city that benefits more from the wind, and God knows best." One of his contemporaries, the geographer Istakhri, in approximately 345 AH / 951 AD, confirms this, saying: "There strong winds blow, and on account of them, wheels that turn by the wind have been constructed." Muqaddasi, in his book "The Best Divisions for Knowledge of the Regions" (Ahsan al-Taqasim fi Ma'rifat al-Aqalim), compiled in 375 AH / 980 AD, writes about the wonders of the region: "The windmills of Sagestan, Pushang, the fortress of Zaranj, and the sand deserts themselves are all among the countless wonders." Ibn Hawqal writes about Sistan: "In Sistan, strong continuous winds blow, and for this reason windmills have been built there for grinding wheat." The renowned geographer Qazvini (d. 682 AH / 1283 AD) writes in his description of Sistan: "There the wind never subsides, and taking advantage of it, mills have been constructed — all the grinding of grain is done with those wheels. It is a hot land, and the wheels operate by wind." In the Book of Sistan it is written: "But what exists inherently in Sistan that in other cities must be ordained or done by hand — they have also constructed these wheels to draw water from wells to gardens and to land where they cultivate. For if the water is scarce, likewise they benefit greatly from the wind." Although the birthplace of these mills was Sistan, throughout history their use expanded to neighboring regions with similar climates, including Afghanistan, and according to locals, their use continued until about twenty years ago, through the late 1990s (late 1370s in the solar calendar).
Distribution of the Asbads. Although Sistan, and specifically Zabol, has been identified as the birthplace of asbads, in
Image 3, Sistan, Qaleh Machi Asbad. Image 4, Sistan, Qaleh Rostam Asbad.
the present day, the most extensive and greatest number of asbads may be in South Khorasan Province, and the most complete and usable ones in Razavi Khorasan Province, specifically the town of Nashtifan. In Sistan, the known asbads include one at Qaleh Rostam, which has been restored, and another at Qaleh Machi, located 800 meters south of Zabol (Images 3 and 4). In South Khorasan Province, the most famous asbads are in the village of Khvansharaf near the city of Nehbandan (5 km northeast of Nehbandan), numbering about twenty, of which ten have been restored but lack equipment. (The city of Nehbandan is located 200 km east of Birjand, the provincial capital, and the visit to Khvansharaf dates to around the year 2001; Images 5, 6, and 7.) Other asbads in this province include those in the village of "Hamand" — a total of six asbads, one group of four and another of two, unrestored and in a state of deterioration; in the village of "Chahar Farsakh," five restored asbads lacking equipment; in the village of "Roomeh," 180 km east of Birjand, four asbads in two groups of two at a short distance from each other; and in the village of "Mighan," two sets of asbads — one group of two and another of ten; and in "Tabas Mesina," approximately 20 asbads were observed. According to locals, asbads also existed in several other villages in the Nehbandan district, including "Dehno," "Seydan," "Zahri," "Haji Abad," "Dahn-e Rud," and "Khunik-e Pa'in" (Image 8, Hamand village; Images 9-12, Chahar Farsakh village; Images 13-15, Roomeh village; Images 16-17, Mighan village; Image 18, Tabas Mesina village). The Cultural Heritage, Tourism, and Handicrafts Organization of the province, citing the Swedish geographer Sven Hedin, who visited this region (Nehbandan and its environs) in the late nineteenth century, reported the number of houses as 400 and the number of asbads as 75, and announced that 71 are still identifiable in recent surveys.
In other districts of the province, even in the Qaen district, 100 km north of Birjand and near the eastern border of Iran, no asbads have been reported, and along the Qaen-Khaf route (in eastern Razavi Khorasan Province), which is about 140 km, no asbads are seen. The national gazetteer lists 77 asbads in the Pa'in Khaf rural district: Sangan with 24 asbads; Nashtifan, 8 km northwest of Sangan, with 4; Barabod, 30 km northwest of Sangan, with 15; Niazabad, 18 km southwest of Sangan (Image 19, city of Khaf; Images 20-22, Nashtifan village). During local visits, one restored asbad was also observed in the village of Khargerd (Image 23, Khargerd village). Among all these villages, the asbads of Nashtifan are the most intact with complete equipment and have recently been well restored, making their use feasible. All the named asbads have a vertical axis, and only one asbad in the village of Shah Taghi (now Imam Taghi) in Razavi Khorasan Province near Mashhad has been reported to have a horizontal axis. It is worth noting that European windmills, and specifically those of the Netherlands, also have a horizontal axis, and some sources state that these mills were originally called "Turkish windmills," raising the possibility that this Iranian invention reached Europe through the Ottoman Empire. In the image, the windmills of the village of Alacati near the city of Cesme in western Turkey today can be observed (Image 24, Alacati village, Turkey).
Components of the Asbads. Each asbad consists of a two-story structure approximately 3 to 4 meters wide by 10
Image 6, Khvansharaf. Image 7, Khvansharaf.
Image 9, Chahar Farsakh. Image 11, Chahar Farsakh.
Image 10, Chahar Farsakh. Image 12, Chahar Farsakh.
to 11 meters long, called an "askhaneh" (mill house). The long sides of this rectangle are oriented east and west, and the shorter sides face north and south. The wooden entrance door of the askhaneh is on the south side. In some examples, on either side of the entrance door, two spaces separated from the floor by a wall of at most 50 cm in height can be seen, called "parkhu," which is the area where the grain to be ground is poured. Some askhaneh have two and others four parkhu. Adjacent to the parkhu is a space for winnowing the excess chaff from wheat and sifting it. After passing the parkhu, one reaches the main mill mechanism, which consists of a space where cleaned grain is poured, with a hole in its lower part connected to a chute through which the grain is fed to the center of the millstone. This space is called "dol." Below the dol is a space called "namakdan" (salt container), from which salt is periodically poured into the center of the millstone (Images 25-30, interior of the askhaneh; Images 31-32, the askhaneh roof). The millstone consists of two large cylindrical stones approximately 80 to 90 cm in diameter and about 20 to 25 cm in height, placed one upon the other. The stone is of a special type, lighter to transport than other stones. Each stone weighs approximately 200 to 300 kilograms, while other stones of similar dimensions weigh about one ton. The upper stone has a hole in its center through which the grain enters. This stone is connected to a vertical timber post — made of pine — called the "peyvand" (bond) or "charkhbad" (wind wheel) or "par" (blade). A metal rod at the lowest part of the peyvand passes through beneath the lower stone and connects to a wooden lever; to start the operation, the upper stone is first slightly raised with this lever, and two people begin turning it, facilitating the asbad's movement — functioning essentially as a starter. The connection of the charkhbad or peyvand with the upper stone is a dovetail-shaped metal fitting connected from below with the upper stone, through which the rotation is transmitted. The entire length of the peyvand is bound with metal bands to prevent the wood from disintegrating
during rotation. After the grain is ground into flour or cracked wheat, the material falls between the two stones into a chamber from which it is collected and placed in sacks, where a scale for weighing is also located. The materials used in asbads are mud brick and clay for the structure, wood for the charkhbad, blades, and entrance door, and stone for the millstone. The structure has an arched vault with a hole at the top through which the peyvand or charkhbad — or as Ali Bolukbashi calls it, the "tir-pol" — exits into the open air. The askhaneh roof is flat, and three walls approximately 6 meters high and about 4 meters long are built on its north, east, and west sides. The north wall has a longitudinal slit approximately 80 cm wide, with thin wooden pieces connecting the two sides of the slit along its entire length. Through this slit, the wind strikes the blades of the charkhbad. Each charkhbad has 8 sails or blades, made of reed or thin strips of wood, 75 to 80 cm long and numbering 4 to 6, covered with vertical strips approximately 10 cm wide at approximately 10 cm intervals, connected with wire or rope. The highest part of the asbad consists of beams similar to the peyvand that connect each peyvand to the peyvand of the adjacent asbad. In cases where two neighboring asbads are not perfectly aligned, the beam above the charkhbad is connected to the east and west walls to maintain the charkhbad's stability and prevent the wind from causing it to tilt. The askhaneh is connected to the roof by a stairway (Images 33-35, details). This useful, and for its time advanced, thoughtful, and creative mechanism possesses a distinctive beauty and variety; every corner of it is a beautiful sculpture, and the whole presents an astonishing and captivating panorama before the viewer's eyes — unique spaces where every corner is enchanting and will never be forgotten.
Image 16, Mighan. Image 17, Mighan.
Image 13, Roomeh. Image 14, Roomeh. Image 15, Roomeh. Roome Windmill.
Image 20, Nashtifan. Image 22, Nashtifan.
Image 23, Khargerd. Image 24, Alacati, Turkey.
Image 27, Asbad roof plan. Image 28, Askhaneh plan.
Image 25, Askhaneh. Image 26, Askhaneh. Askhaneh Windmill.
I first encountered this phenomenon in 1975 or 1976, in the film "The Mongols" by Parviz Kimiavi. From then on, the image of the asbads remained in my mind. Years ago, I also read something that mentioned the existence of asbads in Sistan. In February 2003, I traveled to Sistan and Baluchestan to familiarize myself with the region and also in search of asbads. I assumed I would probably find them in the city of Khash, but that was not the case. Later,
when I was traveling to South Khorasan for professional reasons, I realized that the city in question must be Khaf, not Khash, and that Khaf was not so far out of reach, and I became certain I would find the asbads there — and so it was, although not in Khaf, where a large number of asbads in a state of deterioration were observed, but in beautiful Nashtifan near Khaf, I found what I had been searching for. After that, I visited many times and wrote about them in my articles.
Image 31, Method of attaching blades to the wind wheel.
This article is the result of my most recent visit to that land.
Sources: Dehkhoda Dictionary. Moein Persian Dictionary. The Great Islamic Encyclopedia, Volume 1, Second Edition, 1995, published by the Center for the Great Islamic Encyclopedia, article "Asia" by Ali Bolukbashi.
Blog of Hossein Sargazi, article "Ecosystem of Sistan and Baluchestan," July 2007. Sargazi.blogfa.com. Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. Website of the Cultural Heritage, Tourism, and Handicrafts Organization of South Khorasan Province. Website of the Cultural Heritage, Tourism, and Handicrafts Organization of Razavi Khorasan Province.